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Class 11th Biology NCERT Notes and Solutions (Non-Rationalised)
1. The Living World
This chapter introduces the fundamental characteristics that distinguish living organisms from non-living things, such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, cellular organisation, and consciousness. It explores the immense diversity of life on Earth (biodiversity) and the need for classification. The principles and processes of taxonomy are discussed, including nomenclature (using binomial names), classification hierarchy (species to kingdom), and taxonomic aids like herbarium, botanical gardens, museums, and keys, essential tools for biological studies.
2. Biological Classification
This chapter traces the history of biological classification systems, from early attempts by Aristotle and Linnaeus to the widely accepted Five Kingdom classification proposed by R.H. Whittaker. It provides a detailed overview of the characteristics of the five kingdoms: Monera (bacteria), Protista (unicellular eukaryotes), Fungi (heterotrophic eukaryotes), Plantae (autotrophic eukaryotes), and Animalia (heterotrophic, multicellular eukaryotes). The chapter also briefly discusses viruses, viroids, and lichens, entities not fitting neatly into the kingdom system, highlighting the complexities of classifying life.
3. Plant Kingdom
This chapter provides a comprehensive survey of the Plant Kingdom, classifying plants into major groups: Algae, Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts), Pteridophytes (ferns), Gymnosperms (conifers), and Angiosperms (flowering plants). It describes the salient features, life cycles (including the crucial concept of **alternation of generations**), and examples representative of each division. Understanding the characteristics and evolutionary relationships within the Plant Kingdom is fundamental to botany and ecology, appreciating the adaptations that allow plants to thrive in diverse habitats.
4. Animal Kingdom
This chapter presents a systematic classification of the Animal Kingdom, starting with fundamental features like levels of organisation (cellular, tissue, organ, organ system), body symmetry (radial, bilateral), germ layers (diploblastic, triploblastic), and presence or absence of a coelom. It then details the characteristic features and examples of major animal phyla, from non-chordates (Porifera, Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Aschelminthes, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata, Hemichordata) to the Chordata, providing a framework for studying animal diversity and evolution.
5. Morphology Of Flowering Plants
This chapter focuses on the study of the external structure and form of flowering plants (**angiosperms**). It describes the morphology of the different parts of a typical flowering plant: the root system (tap root, fibrous root, modifications), the stem (types, modifications like rhizome, tuber), the leaf (venation, phyllotaxy, modifications), the inflorescence (arrangement of flowers), the flower (parts like calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium, placentation), the fruit, and the seed. Understanding morphology is crucial for plant identification and classification.
6. Anatomy Of Flowering Plants
This chapter delves into the internal structure of flowering plants, focusing on plant anatomy. It describes the different types of **plant tissues**: meristematic tissues (responsible for growth) and permanent tissues (simple like parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and complex like xylem and phloem, responsible for transport). The internal structure (anatomy) of dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous root, stem, and leaf is detailed. The concept of **secondary growth**, leading to an increase in girth, is also explained, highlighting the functional significance of these tissues and structures.
7. Structural Organisation In Animals
This chapter examines the structural organisation of multicellular animals at different levels: tissues, organs, and organ systems. It describes the four main types of **animal tissues**: epithelial tissue (covering and lining), connective tissue (support and binding), muscular tissue (movement), and nervous tissue (control and coordination). Detailed studies of the anatomy and morphology of three representative animals – the earthworm, the cockroach, and the frog – are included to illustrate how tissues are organised into organs and organ systems performing specific functions, providing insights into the complexity of animal bodies.
8. Cell - The Unit Of Life
This chapter provides a detailed exploration of the **cell**, considered the basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms. It discusses the history of cell discovery and the postulates of the **Cell Theory**. The differences between prokaryotic cells (like bacteria) and eukaryotic cells (plants, animals, fungi) are highlighted. A significant portion describes the structure and functions of various **cell organelles** within eukaryotic cells, including the cell membrane, cell wall, nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and ribosomes, explaining their roles in cellular activities.
9. Biomolecules
This chapter introduces the diverse organic and inorganic molecules that constitute living organisms, collectively called **biomolecules**. It discusses the chemical analysis of cellular components. The structure and function of key organic biomolecules are explored, including **carbohydrates** (monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides), **proteins** (composed of amino acids, levels of structure), **lipids** (fats, phospholipids, steroids), and **nucleic acids** (DNA and RNA, carriers of genetic information). The chapter also introduces **enzymes** as biological catalysts and discusses the nature of bonds in macromolecules, providing a biochemical perspective on life.
10. Cell Cycle And Cell Division
This chapter explains the sequence of events by which a cell duplicates its genome, synthesizes other cell components, and eventually divides into two daughter cells – the **cell cycle**. The phases of the cell cycle (Interphase: G1, S, G2; M Phase: Mitosis or Meiosis) are described. **Mitosis** (equational division) and **Meiosis** (reductional division), including their detailed stages (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase), are explained. The significance of mitosis for growth and repair and meiosis for sexual reproduction and maintaining chromosome number is highlighted.
11. Transport In Plants
This chapter explores the mechanisms by which substances are transported over short and long distances within plants. It discusses different types of transport (passive, active), diffusion, and osmosis. **Water transport** in plants, including absorption by roots, upward movement through xylem (**transpiration pull theory**), and the importance of transpiration, is explained. **Mineral nutrition** uptake and translocation are covered. **Transport of organic nutrients** (food/sugars) produced during photosynthesis through phloem by **mass flow hypothesis** is also detailed, highlighting the plant's circulatory system.
12. Mineral Nutrition
This chapter focuses on the essential **mineral elements** required by plants for their growth and development. It discusses the methods for identifying essential elements (hydroponics), criteria for essentiality, and the roles of macronutrients (e.g., N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, Cl). Deficiency symptoms and toxicity of elements are described. The mechanisms of absorption of these elements and the process of **nitrogen metabolism**, including nitrogen fixation (biotic and abiotic), are also explained, highlighting the importance of soil as a nutrient reservoir.
13. Photosynthesis In Higher Plants
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (food) using carbon dioxide ($\textsf{CO}_2$) and water. This chapter delves into the details of photosynthesis in higher plants. It covers the site (chloroplasts), the pigments involved (chlorophylls, carotenoids), the **light-dependent reactions** (electron transport, photophosphorylation), and the **light-independent reactions** or Calvin cycle (C3 pathway). The C4 pathway (Hatch and Slack pathway) is also discussed. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis are analyzed, revealing this vital energy-producing process.
14. Respiration In Plants
Respiration is the process of breaking down organic molecules to release energy in the form of ATP. This chapter explains respiration in plants, covering both **aerobic** and **anaerobic** respiration. Key metabolic pathways involved in aerobic respiration – **glycolysis** (in cytoplasm), **Krebs cycle** or citric acid cycle (in mitochondria), and **oxidative phosphorylation** through the electron transport system (in mitochondria) – are detailed. The **Respiratory Quotient (RQ)** is introduced. Anaerobic respiration (fermentation) and its significance are also discussed, contrasting energy release mechanisms.
15. Plant - Growth And Development
This chapter explores the complex processes of growth, differentiation, and development in plants, which are influenced by both internal and external factors. **Plant growth regulators** or phytohormones (Auxins, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Abscisic acid, Ethylene) are discussed, explaining their roles in regulating various aspects of plant life, from cell division and elongation to flowering, fruiting, and senescence. **Photoperiodism** (response to light duration for flowering) and **vernalisation** (response to cold for flowering) are explained, highlighting environmental control over plant development.
16. Digestion And Absorption
This chapter focuses on the process by which food is broken down and absorbed in the human body. It describes the **human digestive system**, including the alimentary canal (mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus) and associated digestive glands (salivary glands, liver, pancreas). The mechanical and chemical processes of digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are explained. The chapter also details the mechanisms of **absorption** of digested food products in the small intestine and common disorders of the digestive system.
17. Breathing And Exchange Of Gases
This chapter focuses on the vital process of **respiration** in animals, specifically breathing and the exchange of gases. It describes different respiratory organs in various animals and the detailed structure of the **human respiratory system** (nostrils, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli). The mechanism of breathing (inhalation and exhalation) and the process of **exchange of oxygen ($\textsf{O}_2$) and carbon dioxide ($\textsf{CO}_2$)** across the alveolar membrane and at the tissue level are explained. Transport of gases by blood and common respiratory disorders are also covered.
18. Body Fluids And Circulation
This chapter explores the internal environment of animals, focusing on body fluids like **blood** and **lymph**, and the circulatory system responsible for their movement. It describes the composition of blood (plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets), **blood groups** (ABO and Rh), and blood coagulation. The structure and working of the **human heart**, different types of blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and the complete process of blood circulation (pulmonary and systemic) are detailed. The chapter also introduces the structure and function of the lymphatic system.
19. Excretory Products And Their Elimination
This chapter focuses on the process of **excretion**, the removal of metabolic wastes from the body. It discusses different types of nitrogenous wastes produced by animals (ammonia, urea, uric acid) and their modes of excretion in various organisms. The structure and function of the **human excretory system**, particularly the kidney, are detailed, explaining the process of **urine formation** through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The roles of other organs in excretion and disorders of the excretory system are also covered.
20. Locomotion And Movement
This chapter explores the different types of **movement** and **locomotion** exhibited by living organisms. It discusses amoeboid, ciliary, and flagellar movements. The focus then shifts to the human musculoskeletal system, describing the **skeleton** (axial and appendicular), different types of **joints**, and the structure and function of **muscles** (skeletal, smooth, cardiac). The mechanism of **muscle contraction** based on the sliding filament theory is explained. Common disorders of the muscular and skeletal systems are also discussed, highlighting the mechanics of bodily motion.
21. Neural Control And Coordination
This chapter introduces the **nervous system**, the primary system for rapid control and coordination in animals. It describes the structure and function of a **neuron** (nerve cell), the generation and conduction of nerve impulses, and **synaptic transmission** across synapses. The organization of the **human nervous system** is detailed, including the Central Nervous System (brain and spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System. **Reflex action** and the structure and functioning of sensory organs like the eye and ear are also covered, explaining how the nervous system processes information and generates responses.
22. Chemical Coordination And Integration
This chapter complements the neural control system by exploring the **endocrine system**, which provides slower, long-lasting coordination through chemical messengers called **hormones**. Various **endocrine glands** in the human body (pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, gonads) are discussed, along with the specific hormones they secrete and their physiological roles in regulating processes like growth, metabolism, reproduction, and maintaining homeostasis. The chapter explains how hormones act on target cells and the concept of feedback mechanisms regulating hormone secretion.